Managing Pain in Postoperative Patients: What the Hospitalist Needs to Know-References

References

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This comprehensive reference list supports the topic "Managing Pain in Postoperative Patients: What the Hospitalist Needs to Know," highlighting key evidence and guidelines about postoperative pain management strategies (2026-2029).<br /><br />Several meta-analyses and randomized trials demonstrate the efficacy and benefits of regional anesthesia techniques such as epidural analgesia (Block et al., 2003; Wu et al., 2005; Rodgers et al., 2000) and peripheral nerve blocks (Richmann et al., 2006; Fowler et al., 2008) in improving pain control and reducing postoperative morbidity and mortality. Comparisons between continuous thoracic epidural and paravertebral blocks are also reviewed (Júnior Ade et al., 2013).<br /><br />The role of patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) with opioids is discussed extensively with references to safety, efficacy, and side effect profiles (Walder et al., 2001; Hudcova et al., 2006; Macintyre, 2001). The dangers of opioid use and strategies to balance effective pain relief with minimizing risks, especially in the context of the opioid epidemic and CDC prescribing guidelines, are emphasized (American Academy of Family Physicians, 2022; Mazurenko et al., 2019).<br /><br />Non-opioid adjuncts including NSAIDs, COX-2 inhibitors, gabapentinoids, antidepressants for neuropathic pain, ketamine, clonidine, and intravenous lidocaine are reviewed for their role in multimodal analgesia and opioid-sparing effects (Marret et al., 2005; Tiippana et al., 2007; Elia & Tramer, 2005; Dunn & Durieux, 2017).<br /><br />The significance of accurate pain assessment tools (numeric rating scales, McGill Pain Questionnaire, Brief Pain Inventory) and the psychological aspects influencing pain perception, such as anxiety, catastrophizing, and depression, are also covered (Paice & Cohen, 1997; Sullivan et al., 2001; Tang & Gibson, 2005).<br /><br />Additional references address complementary therapies like cold therapy, TENS, acupuncture, and hypnosis for postoperative pain management (Konrath et al., 1996; Bjordal et al., 2003; Sun et al., 2008; Patterson & Jensen, 2003).<br /><br />Overall, these references provide hospitalists with evidence-based insights into pain mechanisms, assessment, multimodal analgesic approaches, and safety considerations essential for optimal postoperative pain management to enhance recovery and patient outcomes.

Keywords

postoperative pain management

regional anesthesia

epidural analgesia

peripheral nerve blocks

patient-controlled analgesia

opioid safety

non-opioid adjuncts

multimodal analgesia

pain assessment tools

complementary therapies